tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1785246034678545832024-03-13T20:48:30.964-07:00macam-macam RAMTKJ 03 SMK ISLAMhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06414452469020051612noreply@blogger.comBlogger1125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-178524603467854583.post-87911408436819428132011-05-23T22:41:00.000-07:002011-05-23T22:41:34.715-07:00macam-macam RAM<div id="content"><div id="siteNotice"><div id="localNotice"></div></div><h1 class="firstHeading" id="firstHeading">Random-access memory</h1><div id="bodyContent"><div id="siteSub">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div><div id="jump-to-nav">Jump to: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memory#mw-head">navigation</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memory#p-search">search</a> </div><div class="dablink">"RAM" redirects here. For other uses of the word, see <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ram_%28disambiguation%29" title="Ram (disambiguation)">Ram (disambiguation)</a>.</div><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Memory_module_DDRAM_20-03-2006.jpg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="165" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Memory_module_DDRAM_20-03-2006.jpg/220px-Memory_module_DDRAM_20-03-2006.jpg" width="220" /></a> <br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Memory_module_DDRAM_20-03-2006.jpg" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div>Example of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read/write_memory" title="Read/write memory">writable</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatile_memory" title="Volatile memory">volatile</a> random-access memory: Synchronous <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_RAM" title="Dynamic RAM">Dynamic RAM</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DIMM" title="DIMM">modules</a>, primarily used as main memory in <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computers" title="Personal computers">personal computers</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workstation" title="Workstation">workstations</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server_%28computing%29" title="Server (computing)">servers</a>.</div></div></div><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EBRAM.JPG"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="145" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/56/EBRAM.JPG/220px-EBRAM.JPG" width="220" /></a> <br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EBRAM.JPG" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div>DDR3 Laptop RAM modules from a Vaio E series laptop</div></div></div><table class="infobox"><tbody>
<tr> <td align="center" style="background-color: #ccccff;"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_memory" title="Computer memory">Computer memory</a> types</b></td> </tr>
<tr> <td align="center" style="background-color: #dddddd;"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatile_memory" title="Volatile memory">Volatile</a></b></td> </tr>
<tr> <td><ul><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_random-access_memory" title="Dynamic random-access memory">DRAM</a> (e.g., <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DDR_SDRAM" title="DDR SDRAM">DDR SDRAM</a>)</li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Static_random-access_memory" title="Static random-access memory">SRAM</a></li>
<li>In development <ul><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-RAM" title="T-RAM">T-RAM</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z-RAM" title="Z-RAM">Z-RAM</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twin_Transistor_RAM" title="Twin Transistor RAM">TTRAM</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li>Historical <ul><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delay_line_memory" title="Delay line memory">Delay line memory</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selectron_tube" title="Selectron tube">Selectron tube</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Williams_tube" title="Williams tube">Williams tube</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></td> </tr>
<tr> <td align="center" style="background-color: #dddddd;"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-volatile_memory" title="Non-volatile memory">Non-volatile</a></b></td> </tr>
<tr> <td><ul><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read-only_memory" title="Read-only memory">ROM</a> <ul><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmable_read-only_memory" title="Programmable read-only memory">PROM</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPROM" title="EPROM">EPROM</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EEPROM" title="EEPROM">EEPROM</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memory" title="Flash memory">Flash memory</a></li>
<li>Early stage <ul><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferroelectric_RAM" title="Ferroelectric RAM">FeRAM</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetoresistive_Random_Access_Memory" title="Magnetoresistive Random Access Memory">MRAM</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase-change_memory" title="Phase-change memory">PRAM</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li>In development <ul><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmable_metallization_cell" title="Programmable metallization cell">CBRAM</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SONOS" title="SONOS">SONOS</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistive_random-access_memory" title="Resistive random-access memory">RRAM</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racetrack_memory" title="Racetrack memory">Racetrack memory</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nano-RAM" title="Nano-RAM">NRAM</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Millipede" title="IBM Millipede">Millipede</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li>Historical <ul><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drum_memory" title="Drum memory">Drum memory</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_core_memory" title="Magnetic core memory">Magnetic core memory</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plated_wire_memory" title="Plated wire memory">Plated wire memory</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubble_memory" title="Bubble memory">Bubble memory</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twistor_memory" title="Twistor memory">Twistor memory</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></td> </tr>
</tbody></table><b>Random-access memory</b> (<b>RAM</b>) is a form of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">computer data storage</a>. Today, it takes the form of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a> that allow stored <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data" title="Data">data</a> to be accessed in any order with a worst case performance of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constant_time" title="Constant time">constant time</a>. Strictly speaking, modern types of DRAM are therefore not random access, as data is read in bursts, although the name DRAM / RAM has stuck. However, many types of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SRAM" title="SRAM">SRAM</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read-only_memory" title="Read-only memory">ROM</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OTP" title="OTP">OTP</a>, and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NOR_flash" title="NOR flash">NOR flash</a> are still <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_access" title="Random access">random access</a> even in a strict sense. RAM is often associated with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatile_memory" title="Volatile memory">volatile</a> types of memory (such as <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DRAM" title="DRAM">DRAM</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DIMM" title="DIMM">memory modules</a>), where its stored information is lost if the power is removed. Many other types of non-volatile memory are RAM as well, including most types of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read_only_memory" title="Read only memory">ROM</a> and a type of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memory" title="Flash memory">flash memory</a> called <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memory#NOR_flash" title="Flash memory">NOR-Flash</a></i>. The first RAM modules to come into the market were created in 1951 and were sold until the late 1960s and early 1970s. However, other memory devices (magnetic tapes, disks) can access the storage data in a predetermined order, because mechanical designs only allow this.<br />
<table class="toc" id="toc"><tbody>
<tr> <td><div id="toctitle"><h2>Contents</h2><span class="toctoggle">[<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memory#" id="togglelink">hide</a>]</span></div><ul><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memory#History"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a> <ul><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memory#Types_of_RAM"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Types of RAM</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memory#Memory_hierarchy"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Memory hierarchy</span></a> <ul><li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-4"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memory#Virtual_memory"><span class="tocnumber">1.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Virtual memory</span></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memory#Other_uses_of_the_.22RAM.22_term"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Other uses of the "RAM" term</span></a> <ul><li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-6"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memory#RAM_disks"><span class="tocnumber">1.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">RAM disks</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memory#Shadow_RAM"><span class="tocnumber">1.3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Shadow RAM</span></a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memory#Recent_developments"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Recent developments</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memory#Memory_wall"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Memory wall</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memory#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memory#Notes_and_references"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Notes and references</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memory#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul></td> </tr>
</tbody></table><h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span></h2><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_RAM.jpg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="165" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Old_RAM.jpg/220px-Old_RAM.jpg" width="220" /></a> <br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_RAM.jpg" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div>Old RAM modules</div></div></div>An early type of widespread <i>writable</i> random-access memory was the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_core_memory" title="Magnetic core memory">magnetic core memory</a>, developed from 1955 to 1975, and subsequently used in most computers up until the development and adoption of the static and dynamic integrated RAM circuits in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Before this, computers used <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relay" title="Relay">relays</a>, delay line/delay memory, or various kinds of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tube</a> arrangements to implement "main" memory functions (i.e., hundreds or thousands of bits), some of which were <i>random access</i>, some not. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drum_memory" title="Drum memory">Drum memory</a> could be expanded at low cost but retrieval of non-sequential memory items required knowledge of the physical layout of the drum to optimize speed. Latches built out of vacuum tube triodes, and later, out of discrete <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistors</a>, were used for smaller and faster memories such as random-access register banks and registers. Prior to the development of integrated ROM circuits, <i>permanent</i> (or <i>read-only</i>) random-access memory was often constructed using <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_diode" title="Semiconductor diode">semiconductor diode</a> matrices driven by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Address_decoder" title="Address decoder">address decoders</a>, or specially wound <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Core_memory" title="Core memory">core memory</a> planes.<br />
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Types_of_RAM">Types of RAM</span></h3><div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RamTypes.JPG"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="119" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/RamTypes.JPG/220px-RamTypes.JPG" width="220" /></a> <br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RamTypes.JPG" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div>Top L-R, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DDR2_SDRAM" title="DDR2 SDRAM">DDR2</a> with heat-spreader, DDR2 without heat-spreader, Laptop DDR2, DDR, Laptop DDR</div></div></div><div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1989-0406-022,_VEB_Carl_Zeiss_Jena,_1-Megabit-Chip.jpg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="154" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1989-0406-022%2C_VEB_Carl_Zeiss_Jena%2C_1-Megabit-Chip.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1989-0406-022%2C_VEB_Carl_Zeiss_Jena%2C_1-Megabit-Chip.jpg" width="220" /></a> <br />
<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1989-0406-022,_VEB_Carl_Zeiss_Jena,_1-Megabit-Chip.jpg" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div>1 Megabit chip - one of the last models developed by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Zeiss_AG" title="Carl Zeiss AG">VEB Carl Zeiss Jena</a> in 1989</div></div></div>The two main forms of modern RAM are <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Static_random_access_memory" title="Static random access memory">static RAM</a> (SRAM) and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_random-access_memory" title="Dynamic random-access memory">dynamic RAM</a>. In static RAM, a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit" title="Bit">bit of data</a> is stored using the state of a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flip-flop_%28electronics%29" title="Flip-flop (electronics)">flip-flop</a>. This form of RAM is more expensive to produce, but is generally faster and requires less power than DRAM and, in modern computers, is often used as cache memory for the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">CPU</a>. DRAM stores a bit of data using a transistor and capacitor pair, which together comprise a memory cell. The capacitor holds a high or low charge (1 or 0, respectively), and the transistor acts as a switch that lets the control circuitry on the chip read the capacitor's state of charge or change it. As this form of memory is less expensive to produce than static RAM, it is the predominant form of computer memory used in modern computers.<br />
Both static and dynamic RAM are considered <i>volatile</i>, as their state is lost or reset when power is removed from the system. By contrast, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read-only_memory" title="Read-only memory">Read-only memory</a> (ROM) stores data by permanently enabling or disabling selected transistors, such that the memory cannot be altered. Writeable variants of ROM (such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EEPROM" title="EEPROM">EEPROM</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memory" title="Flash memory">flash memory</a>) share properties of both ROM and RAM, enabling data to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistence_%28computer_science%29" title="Persistence (computer science)">persist</a> without power and to be updated without requiring special equipment. These persistent forms of semiconductor ROM include <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_serial_bus" title="Universal serial bus">USB</a> flash drives, memory cards for cameras and portable devices, etc. As of 2007, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memory#NAND_type" title="Flash memory">NAND flash</a> has begun to replace older forms of persistent storage, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_storage" title="Disk storage">magnetic disks</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_tape_data_storage" title="Magnetic tape data storage">tapes</a>, while <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memory#NOR_type" title="Flash memory">NOR flash</a> is being used in place of ROM in <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netbooks" title="Netbooks">netbooks</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugged_computers" title="Rugged computers">rugged computers</a>, since it is capable of true random access, allowing direct code execution.<br />
Some types of SRAM and DRAM include special circuitry to detect and/or correct random faults (memory errors) in the stored data, using <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parity_bit" title="Parity bit">parity bits</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_detection_and_correction#Error-correcting_code" title="Error detection and correction">error correction code</a>.<br />
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Memory_hierarchy">Memory hierarchy</span></h3>Many computer systems have a memory hierarchy consisting of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU_register" title="CPU register">CPU registers</a>, on-die <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Static_random_access_memory" title="Static random access memory">SRAM</a> caches, external <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cache" title="Cache">caches</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DRAM" title="DRAM">DRAM</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paging" title="Paging">paging</a> systems, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_memory" title="Virtual memory">virtual memory</a> or <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swap_space" title="Swap space">swap space</a> on a hard drive. This entire pool of memory may be referred to as "RAM" by many developers, even though the various subsystems can have very different <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Access_time" title="Access time">access times</a>, violating the original concept behind the <i>random access</i> term in RAM. Even within a hierarchy level such as DRAM, the specific row, column, bank, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_rank" title="Memory rank">rank</a>, channel, or <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interleave" title="Interleave">interleave</a> organization of the components make the access time variable, although not to the extent that rotating <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storage_media" title="Storage media">storage media</a> or a tape is variable. The overall goal of using a memory hierarchy is to obtain the higher possible average access performance while minimizing the total cost of the entire memory system (generally, the memory hierarchy follows the access time with the fast CPU registers at the top and the slow hard drive at the bottom).<br />
In many modern personal computers, the RAM comes in an easily upgraded form of modules called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DIMM" title="DIMM">memory modules</a> or DRAM modules about the size of a few sticks of chewing gum. These can quickly be replaced should they become damaged or when changing needs demand more storage capacity. As suggested above, smaller amounts of RAM (mostly SRAM) are also integrated in the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU" title="CPU">CPU</a> and other <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IC" title="IC">ICs</a> on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motherboard" title="Motherboard">motherboard</a>, as well as in hard-drives, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD-ROM" title="CD-ROM">CD-ROMs</a>, and several other parts of the computer system.<br />
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Virtual_memory">Virtual memory</span></h4>Most modern operating systems employ a method of extending RAM capacity, known as "virtual memory". A portion of the computer's <a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fixed_storage&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Fixed storage (page does not exist)">fixed storage</a> (typically a <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_drive" title="Hard drive">hard drive</a>) is set aside for a <i>paging file</i> or a <i>scratch partition</i>, and the combination of physical RAM and the paging file form the system's total available RAM. (For example, if a computer has 2 GB of RAM and a 1 GB page file, the operating system has 3 GB total memory available to it.) When the system runs low on physical memory, it can "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paging" title="Paging">swap</a>" portions of RAM to the paging file to make room for new data, as well as to read previously swapped information back into RAM. Excessive use of this mechanism results in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrashing_%28computer_science%29" title="Thrashing (computer science)">thrashing</a> and generally hampers overall system performance, mainly because hard drives are far slower than RAM.<br />
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Other_uses_of_the_.22RAM.22_term">Other uses of the "RAM" term</span></h3>Other physical devices with read–write capability can have "RAM" in their names: for example, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVD-RAM" title="DVD-RAM">DVD-RAM</a>. "Random access" is also the name of an indexing method: hence, disk storage is often called "random access" (<a class="extiw" href="http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?PowerOfPlainText" title="wiki:PowerOfPlainText">Wiki:PowerOfPlainText</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortran_language_features#Direct-access_files" title="Fortran language features">Fortran language features</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MBASIC#Files_and_input.2Foutput" title="MBASIC">MBASIC</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_Platform,_Standard_Edition#Random_access" title="Java Platform, Standard Edition">Java Platform, Standard Edition</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indexed_file" title="Indexed file">indexed file</a>) because the reading head can move relatively quickly from one piece of data to another, and does not have to read all the data in between. However the final "M" is crucial: "RAM" (provided there is no additional term as in "DVD-RAM") always refers to a solid-state device.<br />
Often, RAM is shorthand referring to the computer's main working memory.<br />
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="RAM_disks">RAM disks</span></h4>Software can "partition" a portion of a computer's RAM, allowing it to act as a much faster hard drive that is called a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM_disk" title="RAM disk">RAM disk</a>. A RAM disk loses the stored data when the computer is shut down, unless memory is arranged to have a standby battery source.<br />
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Shadow_RAM">Shadow RAM</span></h4>Sometimes, the contents of a relatively slow ROM chip are copied to read/write memory to allow for shorter access times. The ROM chip is then disabled while the initialized memory locations are switched in on the same block of addresses (often write-protected). This process, sometimes called <i>shadowing</i>, is fairly common in both computers and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_systems" title="Embedded systems">embedded systems</a>.<br />
As a common example, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS" title="BIOS">BIOS</a> in typical personal computers often has an option called “use shadow BIOS” or similar. When enabled, functions relying on data from the BIOS’s ROM will instead use DRAM locations (most can also toggle shadowing of video card ROM or other ROM sections). Depending on the system, this may not result in increased performance, and may cause incompatibilities. For example, some hardware may be inaccessible to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating system</a> if shadow RAM is used. On some systems the benefit may be hypothetical because the BIOS is not used after booting in favor of direct hardware access. Free memory is reduced by the size of the shadowed ROMs.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memory#cite_note-0">[1]</a></sup><br />
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Recent_developments">Recent developments</span></h2>Several new types of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NVRAM" title="NVRAM"><i>non-volatile</i> RAM</a>, which will preserve data while powered down, are under development. The technologies used include <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_nanotube" title="Carbon nanotube">carbon nanotubes</a> and approaches utilizing the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_tunnel_effect" title="Magnetic tunnel effect">magnetic tunnel effect</a>. Amongst the 1st generation MRAM, a 128 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kibibyte" title="Kibibyte">KiB</a> (128 × 2<sup>10</sup> bytes) <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRAM" title="MRAM">magnetic RAM</a> (MRAM) chip was manufactured with 0.18 µm technology in the summer of 2003. In June 2004, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infineon_Technologies" title="Infineon Technologies">Infineon Technologies</a> unveiled a 16 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mebibyte" title="Mebibyte">MiB</a> (16 × 2<sup>20</sup> bytes) prototype again based on 0.18 µm technology. There are two 2nd generation techniques currently in development: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_Assisted_Switching" title="Thermal Assisted Switching">Thermal Assisted Switching</a> (TAS)<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memory#cite_note-1">[2]</a></sup> which is being developed by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocus_Technology" title="Crocus Technology">Crocus Technology</a>, and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin_Torque_Transfer" title="Spin Torque Transfer">Spin Torque Transfer</a> (STT) on which <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocus_Technology" title="Crocus Technology">Crocus</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hynix" title="Hynix">Hynix</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a>, and several other companies are working.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memory#cite_note-2">[3]</a></sup> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nantero" title="Nantero">Nantero</a> built a functioning carbon nanotube memory prototype 10 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibibyte" title="Gibibyte">GiB</a> (10 × 2<sup>30</sup> bytes) array in 2004. Whether some of these technologies will be able to eventually take a significant market share from either DRAM, SRAM, or flash-memory technology, however, remains to be seen.<br />
Since 2006, "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid-state_drive" title="Solid-state drive">Solid-state drives</a>" (based on flash memory) with capacities exceeding 256 gigabytes and performance far exceeding traditional disks have become available. This development has started to blur the definition between traditional random access memory and "disks", dramatically reducing the difference in performance.<br />
Some kinds of random-access memory, such as "EcoRAM", are specifically designed for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server_farm" title="Server farm">server farms</a>, where <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-power_electronics" title="Low-power electronics">low power consumption</a> is more important than speed.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memory#cite_note-3">[4]</a></sup><br />
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Memory_wall">Memory wall</span></h2>The "memory wall" is the growing disparity of speed between CPU and memory outside the CPU chip. An important reason for this disparity is the limited communication bandwidth beyond chip boundaries. From 1986 to 2000, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">CPU</a> speed improved at an annual rate of 55% while memory speed only improved at 10%. Given these trends, it was expected that memory latency would become an overwhelming <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottleneck_%28engineering%29" title="Bottleneck (engineering)">bottleneck</a> in computer performance.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-4"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memory#cite_note-4">[5]</a></sup><br />
Currently, CPU speed improvements have slowed significantly partly due to major physical barriers and partly because current CPU designs have already hit the memory wall in some sense. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Corporation" title="Intel Corporation">Intel</a> summarized these causes in their <a class="external text" href="http://epic.hpi.uni-potsdam.de/pub/Home/TrendsAndConceptsII2010/HW_Trends_borkar_2015.pdf" rel="nofollow">Platform 2015 documentation (PDF)</a><br />
<blockquote>“First of all, as chip geometries shrink and clock frequencies rise, the transistor <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leakage_%28electronics%29" title="Leakage (electronics)">leakage current</a> increases, leading to excess power consumption and heat... Secondly, the advantages of higher clock speeds are in part negated by memory latency, since memory access times have not been able to keep pace with increasing clock frequencies. Third, for certain applications, traditional serial architectures are becoming less efficient as processors get faster (due to the so-called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecture#Von_Neumann_bottleneck" title="Von Neumann architecture">Von Neumann bottleneck</a>), further undercutting any gains that frequency increases might otherwise buy. In addition, partly due to limitations in the means of producing inductance within solid state devices, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistance-capacitance" title="Resistance-capacitance">resistance-capacitance</a> (RC) delays in signal transmission are growing as feature sizes shrink, imposing an additional bottleneck that frequency increases don't address.”</blockquote>The RC delays in signal transmission were also noted in <a class="external text" href="http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/cart/trips/publications/isca00.pdf" rel="nofollow">Clock Rate versus IPC: The End of the Road for Conventional Microarchitectures</a> which projects a maximum of 12.5% average annual CPU performance improvement between 2000 and 2014. The data on <a class="external text" href="http://www.intel.com/pressroom/kits/quickreffam.htm" rel="nofollow">Intel Processors</a> clearly shows a slowdown in performance improvements in recent processors. However, Intel's <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Core_2_Duo" title="Core 2 Duo">Core 2 Duo</a> processors (codenamed Conroe) showed a significant improvement over previous <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentium_4" title="Pentium 4">Pentium 4</a> processors; due to a more efficient architecture, performance increased while clock rate actually decreased.<sup class="Template-Fact" style="white-space: nowrap;" title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from February 2011">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup><br />
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span></h2><table class="metadata mbox-small plainlinks" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170);"><tbody>
<tr> <td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" height="40" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" width="30" /></td> <td class="mbox-text">Wikimedia Commons has media related to: <i><b><a class="extiw" href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/RAM" title="commons:RAM">RAM</a></b></i></td> </tr>
</tbody></table><ul><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAS_latency" title="CAS latency">CAS latency</a> (CL)</li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-channel_architecture" title="Dual-channel architecture">Dual-channel architecture</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple-channel_architecture" title="Triple-channel architecture">Triple-channel architecture</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Registered_memory" title="Registered memory">Registered/buffered memory</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM_parity" title="RAM parity">RAM parity</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_device_bit_rates#Memory_Interconnect.2FRAM_buses" title="List of device bit rates">Memory Interconnect/RAM buses</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_Geometry" title="Memory Geometry">Memory Geometry</a></li>
</ul><h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes_and_references">Notes and references</span></h2><div class="reflist" style="list-style-type: decimal;"><ol class="references"><li id="cite_note-0"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memory#cite_ref-0">^</a></b> <span class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://hardwarehell.com/articles/shadowram.htm" rel="nofollow">"Shadow Ram"</a><span class="printonly">. <a class="external free" href="http://hardwarehell.com/articles/shadowram.htm" rel="nofollow">http://hardwarehell.com/articles/shadowram.htm</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2007-07-24</span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Shadow+Ram&rft.atitle=&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhardwarehell.com%2Farticles%2Fshadowram.htm&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Random-access_memory"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-1"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memory#cite_ref-1">^</a></b> The Emergence of Practical MRAM <a class="external free" href="http://www.crocus-technology.com/pdf/BH%20GSA%20Article.pdf" rel="nofollow">http://www.crocus-technology.com/pdf/BH%20GSA%20Article.pdf</a></li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memory#cite_ref-2">^</a></b> <a class="external free" href="http://www.eetimes.com/news/latest/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=218000269" rel="nofollow">http://www.eetimes.com/news/latest/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=218000269</a></li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memory#cite_ref-3">^</a></b> <a class="external text" href="http://blogs.zdnet.com/green/?p=1165" rel="nofollow">"EcoRAM held up as less power-hungry option than DRAM for server farms"</a> by Heather Clancy 2008</li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memory#cite_ref-4">^</a></b> The term was coined in <a class="external text" href="http://www.cs.virginia.edu/papers/Hitting_Memory_Wall-wulf94.pdf" rel="nofollow">Hitting the Memory Wall: Implications of the Obvious (PDF)</a>.</li>
</ol></div><h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span></h2><ul><li><a class="external text" href="http://www.jcmit.com/memoryprice.htm" rel="nofollow">Memory Prices (1957-2010)</a></li>
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</ul></div></div><div class="portal collapsed" id="p-tb"><h5 tabindex="3">Toolbox</h5><div class="body"><ul><li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a accesskey="j" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Random-access_memory" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [alt-shift-j]">What links here</a></li>
<li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a accesskey="k" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Random-access_memory" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [alt-shift-k]">Related changes</a></li>
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<li id="t-permalink"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Random-access_memory&oldid=430603317" title="Permanent link to this revision of the page">Permanent link</a></li>
<li id="t-cite"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Cite&page=Random-access_memory&id=430603317" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li>
</ul></div></div><div class="portal collapsed" id="p-coll-print_export"><h5 tabindex="4">Print/export</h5><div class="body"><ul id="collectionPortletList"><li id="coll-create_a_book"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Book&bookcmd=book_creator&referer=Random-access+memory" rel="nofollow" title="Create a book or page collection">Create a book</a></li>
<li id="coll-download-as-rl"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Book&bookcmd=render_article&arttitle=Random-access+memory&oldid=430603317&writer=rl" rel="nofollow" title="Download a PDF version of this wiki page">Download as PDF</a></li>
<li id="t-print"><a accesskey="p" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Random-access_memory&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [alt-shift-p]">Printable version</a></li>
</ul></div></div><div class="portal expanded" id="p-lang"><h5 tabindex="5">Languages</h5><div class="body" style="display: block;"><ul><li class="interwiki-af"><a href="http://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ewetoeganklike_geheue" title="Ewetoeganklike geheue">Afrikaans</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-als"><a href="http://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-Access_Memory" title="Random-Access Memory">Alemannisch</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-ar"><a href="http://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B0%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B5%D9%88%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A" title="ذاكرة الوصول العشوائي">العربية</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-an"><a href="http://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM" title="RAM">Aragonés</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-az"><a href="http://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operativ_yadda%C5%9F_qur%C4%9Fusu" title="Operativ yaddaş qurğusu">Azərbaycanca</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-bn"><a href="http://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B0%E2%80%8C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%AE_%E0%A6%85%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B8_%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF" title="র্যান্ডম অ্যাক্সেস মেমোরি">বাংলা</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-be"><a href="http://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F%D1%86%D1%8C_%D0%B7_%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%BC_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Памяць з адвольным доступам">Беларуская</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-be-x-old"><a href="http://be-x-old.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F%D1%86%D1%8C_%D0%B7_%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%BC_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Памяць з адвольным доступам">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-bs"><a href="http://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM" title="RAM">Bosanski</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-br"><a href="http://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memor_bresk" title="Memor bresk">Brezhoneg</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-bg"><a href="http://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82_%D1%81_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8A%D0%BF" title="Памет с произволен достъп">Български</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-ca"><a href="http://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM" title="RAM">Català</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-cs"><a href="http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM" title="RAM">Česky</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-da"><a href="http://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM" title="RAM">Dansk</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-de"><a href="http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-Access_Memory" title="Random-Access Memory">Deutsch</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-et"><a href="http://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muutm%C3%A4lu" title="Muutmälu">Eesti</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-el"><a href="http://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%BD%CE%AE%CE%BC%CE%B7_%CF%84%CF%85%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82_%CF%80%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%83%CF%80%CE%AD%CE%BB%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%B7%CF%82" title="Μνήμη τυχαίας προσπέλασης">Ελληνικά</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-es"><a href="http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoria_de_acceso_aleatorio" title="Memoria de acceso aleatorio">Español</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-eo"><a href="http://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%88efmemoro" title="Ĉefmemoro">Esperanto</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-ext"><a href="http://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM" title="RAM">Estremeñu</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-eu"><a href="http://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM" title="RAM">Euskara</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-fa"><a href="http://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B8%D9%87_%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%81%DB%8C" title="حافظه دسترسی تصادفی">فارسی</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-fr"><a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9moire_vive" title="Mémoire vive">Français</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-fy"><a href="http://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wurk%C3%BBnth%C3%A2ld" title="Wurkûnthâld">Frysk</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-fur"><a href="http://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM" title="RAM">Furlan</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-ga"><a href="http://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuimhne_randamrochtana" title="Cuimhne randamrochtana">Gaeilge</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-gl"><a href="http://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoria_de_acceso_aleatorio" title="Memoria de acceso aleatorio">Galego</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-ko"><a href="http://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%9E%9C%EB%8D%A4_%EC%95%A1%EC%84%B8%EC%8A%A4_%EB%A9%94%EB%AA%A8%EB%A6%AC" title="랜덤 액세스 메모리">한국어</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-hi"><a href="http://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%AE_%28RAM%29" title="रैम (RAM)">हिन्दी</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-hr"><a href="http://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM" title="RAM">Hrvatski</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-id"><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM" title="RAM">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-is"><a href="http://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM" title="RAM">Íslenska</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-it"><a href="http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM" title="RAM">Italiano</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-he"><a href="http://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%96%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%92%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%94_%D7%90%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%99%D7%AA" title="זיכרון גישה אקראית">עברית</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-ka"><a href="http://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%AE%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="ოპერატიული მეხსიერება">ქართული</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-kk"><a href="http://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB_%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%83_%D2%9A%D2%B1%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BB%D2%93%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Жедел Жадтау Құрылғысы">Қазақша</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-sw"><a href="http://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM" title="RAM">Kiswahili</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-la"><a href="http://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM" title="RAM">Latina</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-lv"><a href="http://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Br%C4%ABvpiek%C4%BCuves_atmi%C5%86a" title="Brīvpiekļuves atmiņa">Latviešu</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-lmo"><a href="http://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM" title="RAM">Lumbaart</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-hu"><a href="http://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A9letlen_el%C3%A9r%C3%A9s%C5%B1_mem%C3%B3ria" title="Véletlen elérésű memória">Magyar</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-mk"><a href="http://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="RAM меморија">Македонски</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-ml"><a href="http://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BB%E0%B4%A1%E0%B4%82_%E0%B4%86%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF" title="റാൻഡം ആക്സസ് മെമ്മറി">മലയാളം</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-mr"><a href="http://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%85%E0%A4%AE" title="रॅम">मराठी</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-arz"><a href="http://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85" title="رام">مصرى</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-ms"><a href="http://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingatan_capaian_rawak" title="Ingatan capaian rawak">Bahasa Melayu</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-mn"><a href="http://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%83%D1%83%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%85_%D0%BE%D0%B9" title="Шуурхай санах ой">Монгол</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-nl"><a href="http://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">Nederlands</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-ne"><a href="http://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E2%80%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE" title="र्याम">नेपाली</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-ja"><a href="http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_Access_Memory" title="Random Access Memory">日本語</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-no"><a href="http://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM" title="RAM">Norsk (bokmål)</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-nn"><a href="http://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_Access_Memory" title="Random Access Memory">Norsk (nynorsk)</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-oc"><a href="http://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM" title="RAM">Occitan</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-pnb"><a href="http://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%85" title="ریم">پنجابی</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-pl"><a href="http://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM" title="RAM">Polski</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-pt"><a href="http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mem%C3%B3ria_RAM" title="Memória RAM">Português</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-ro"><a href="http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memorie_cu_acces_aleator" title="Memorie cu acces aleator">Română</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-ru"><a href="http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8E%D1%89%D0%B5%D0%B5_%D1%83%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D1%81_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%BC_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Запоминающее устройство с произвольным доступом">Русский</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-rue"><a href="http://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Операчна память">Русиньскый</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-sah"><a href="http://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM" title="RAM">Саха тыла</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-sq"><a href="http://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM" title="RAM">Shqip</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-simple"><a href="http://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_access_memory" title="Random access memory">Simple English</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-sk"><a href="http://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pam%C3%A4%C5%A5_s_priamym_pr%C3%ADstupom" title="Pamäť s priamym prístupom">Slovenčina</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-sl"><a href="http://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bralno-pisalni_pomnilnik" title="Bralno-pisalni pomnilnik">Slovenščina</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-sr"><a href="http://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM_%28%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%29" title="RAM (меморија)">Српски / Srpski</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-sh"><a href="http://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM" title="RAM">Srpskohrvatski / Српскохрватски</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-fi"><a href="http://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keskusmuisti" title="Keskusmuisti">Suomi</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-sv"><a href="http://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_Access_Memory" title="Random Access Memory">Svenska</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-ta"><a href="http://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="நேரடி அணுகல் நினைவகம்">தமிழ்</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-th"><a href="http://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1" title="แรม">ไทย</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-tg"><a href="http://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B8_%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8_%D0%B0%D2%B3%D1%91%D0%BD%D3%A3" title="Хотираи дастраси аҳёнӣ">Тоҷикӣ</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-tr"><a href="http://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM" title="RAM">Türkçe</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-uk"><a href="http://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BC%27%D1%8F%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Оперативна пам'ять">Українська</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-ur"><a href="http://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%81%DB%8C_%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C_%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B8%DB%81" title="تصادفی رسائی حافظہ">اردو</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-vec"><a href="http://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM" title="RAM">Vèneto</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-vi"><a href="http://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM" title="RAM">Tiếng Việt</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-war"><a href="http://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM" title="RAM">Winaray</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-yi"><a href="http://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM_%D7%96%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9F" title="RAM זיכרון">ייִדיש</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-zh-yue"><a href="http://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM" title="RAM">粵語</a></li>
<li class="interwiki-zh"><a href="http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9A%8F%E6%9C%BA%E5%AD%98%E5%8F%96%E5%AD%98%E5%82%A8%E5%99%A8" title="随机存取存储器">中文</a></li>
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</ul></div>TKJ 03 SMK ISLAMhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06414452469020051612noreply@blogger.com0